Persuasive Writing in Law — Glossary · Professional Certificate in Legal Research and Writing

A priori refers to a type of argument or knowledge that is derived from reason a… #

Related terms include a posteriori, deductive reasoning, and inductive reasoning. In the context of Persuasive Writing in Law, a priori arguments can be used to establish a theoretical or philosophical foundation for a legal argument.

Ab initio is a Latin phrase meaning "from the beginning," and is often us… #

Related terms include ab origine, ex nunc, and retroactive. For example, a contract may be deemed invalid ab initio if it was formed under duress or coercion.

Accelerated judgment refers to a type of judgment that is rendered quickly, ofte… #

Related terms include default judgment, summary judgment, and interlocutory judgment. In Persuasive Writing in Law, an accelerated judgment may be sought by a party in order to avoid the time and expense of a lengthy trial.

Acceptance is a crucial concept in contract law, referring to the act of… #

Related terms include offer, consideration, and mutual assent. For example, if a party accepts an offer to purchase a piece of property, they are bound by the terms of the contract.

Access to justice refers to the ability of individuals to seek and obtain leg… #

Related terms include legal aid, pro bono, and self-representation. In the context of Persuasive Writing in Law, access to justice is an important consideration, as legal writing should be clear and concise in order to facilitate understanding and navigation of the legal system.

Ademption occurs when a specific gift or bequest in a will is no longer availabl… #

Related terms include abatement, ademption by extinction, and satisfaction. For example, if a testator leaves a specific piece of property to a beneficiary, but the property is sold before the testator's death, the gift is said to have adeemed.

Adversarial system refers to a type of legal system in which two or more… #

Related terms include inquisitorial system, jury trial, and bench trial. In Persuasive Writing in Law, the adversarial system is an important consideration, as legal writers must be able to present persuasive arguments and evidence in order to advocate for their clients' interests.

Alternative dispute resolution (ADR) refers to a range of processes and t… #

Related terms include arbitration, mediation, and negotiation. For example, a party may seek to resolve a dispute through mediation, in which a neutral third-party facilitates a settlement between the parties.

Ambiguity refers to a situation or statement that is open to multiple interpreta… #

Related terms include vagueness, uncertainty, and clarity. In Persuasive Writing in Law, ambiguity can be a significant challenge, as legal writers must strive to craft clear and unambiguous language in order to convey their intended meaning.

Appellate jurisdiction refers to the authority of a higher court to review and d… #

Related terms include original jurisdiction, subject matter jurisdiction, and personal jurisdiction. For example, a party may appeal a decision of a trial court to an appellate court, which has the authority to review and reverse the decision.

Argumentation theory refers to the study of how arguments are constructed, prese… #

Related terms include rhetoric, persuasion, and logic. In Persuasive Writing in Law, argumentation theory is an important consideration, as legal writers must be able to craft persuasive arguments and advocate for their clients' interests.

Authority refers to the power or right to make decisions or take actions, often… #

Related terms include jurisdiction, sovereignty, and legitimacy. For example, a judge has the authority to make decisions and impose sentences in a court of law.

Barrister is a type of lawyer who specializes in advocating for clients i… #

Related terms include solicitor, attorney, and counsel. In Persuasive Writing in Law, the role of the barrister is an important consideration, as legal writers must be able to craft persuasive arguments and advocate for their clients' interests.

Best evidence rule is a legal principle that requires the original of a d… #

Related terms include hearsay rule, documentary evidence, and authentication. For example, if a party seeks to introduce a contract into evidence, the original contract must be produced, rather than a photocopy.

Binding precedent refers to a legal decision or ruling that is authoritat… #

Related terms include stare decisis, persuasive authority, and mandatory authority. In Persuasive Writing in Law, binding precedent is an important consideration, as legal writers must be able to analyze and apply relevant legal precedents in order to advocate for their clients' interests.

Burden of proof refers to the obligation of a party to provide sufficient eviden… #

Related terms include standard of proof, presumption, and inference. For example, in a criminal trial, the prosecution has the burden of proving the defendant's guilt beyond a reasonable doubt.

Case law refers to the body of legal decisions and precedents established… #

Related terms include common law, statutory law, and administrative law. In Persuasive Writing in Law, case law is an important consideration, as legal writers must be able to analyze and apply relevant legal precedents in order to advocate for their clients' interests.

Cause of action refers to a legal claim or right that gives rise to a law… #

Related terms include jurisdiction, venue, and standing. For example, a party may have a cause of action for breach of contract or negligence.

Certiorari is a type of writ or order issued by a higher court to review… #

Related terms include appeal, petition, and mandamus. In Persuasive Writing in Law, certiorari is an important consideration, as legal writers must be able to craft persuasive arguments and advocate for their clients' interests in seeking review of a lower court decision.

Civil law refers to the body of laws and regulations that govern private… #

Related terms include common law, statutory law, and administrative law. For example, civil law may govern contracts, torts, and property disputes.

Claim refers to a legal assertion or demand made by a party, often seekin… #

Related terms include complaint, petition, and cause of action. In Persuasive Writing in Law, the claim is an important consideration, as legal writers must be able to craft persuasive arguments and advocate for their clients' interests.

Class action is a type of lawsuit in which a group of individuals or orga… #

Related terms include representative action, collective action, and mass tort. For example, a group of consumers may bring a class action lawsuit against a manufacturer for defective products.

Clear and convincing evidence is a standard of proof that requires a part… #

Related terms include preponderance of the evidence, beyond a reasonable doubt, and prima facie case. In Persuasive Writing in Law, clear and convincing evidence is an important consideration, as legal writers must be able to craft persuasive arguments and advocate for their clients' interests.

Common law refers to the body of laws and precedents established by court… #

Related terms include case law, statutory law, and administrative law. For example, common law may govern contracts, torts, and property disputes.

Comparative law refers to the study of laws and legal systems from differ… #

Related terms include international law, foreign law, and conflict of laws. In Persuasive Writing in Law, comparative law is an important consideration, as legal writers must be able to analyze and apply relevant legal principles from different jurisdictions.

Complaint is a document or pleading that initiates a lawsuit or other leg… #

Related terms include petition, claim, and cause of action. For example, a party may file a complaint in court to seek relief or compensation for a wrong or injury.

Conciliation is a type of alternative dispute resolution process in which… #

Related terms include mediation, arbitration, and negotiation. In Persuasive Writing in Law, conciliation is an important consideration, as legal writers must be able to craft persuasive arguments and advocate for their clients' interests in seeking a settlement.

Conclusion of law refers to a legal determination or finding made by a co… #

Related terms include conclusion of fact, judgment, and verdict. For example, a court may conclude that a party has breached a contract, based on the evidence presented.

Constitutional law refers to the body of laws and principles that govern… #

Related terms include constitutional rights, constitutional amendments, and judicial review. In Persuasive Writing in Law, constitutional law is an important consideration, as legal writers must be able to analyze and apply relevant constitutional principles in order to advocate for their clients' interests.

Constructive notice is a type of notice or knowledge that is imputed to a… #

Related terms include actual notice, implied notice, and constructive knowledge. For example, a party may be deemed to have constructive notice of a defect in a product, even if they did not actually know about it.

Contempt of court refers to a type of conduct or behavior that disrespect… #

Related terms include contempt of law, disobedience, and sanctions. In Persuasive Writing in Law, contempt of court is an important consideration, as legal writers must be able to craft persuasive arguments and advocate for their clients' interests while respecting the authority of the court.

Contract law refers to the body of laws and principles that govern agreem… #

Related terms include contract formation, contract interpretation, and contract remedies. For example, contract law may govern the terms and conditions of a sales contract or employment agreement.

Contribution is a type of remedy or relief that requires a party to pay a… #

Related terms include indemnity, subrogation, and reimbursement. In Persuasive Writing in Law, contribution is an important consideration, as legal writers must be able to craft persuasive arguments and advocate for their clients' interests in seeking relief or compensation.

Copyright law refers to the body of laws and principles that govern the p… #

Related terms include patent law, trademark law, and intellectual property law. For example, copyright law may govern the use and reproduction of a literary work, such as a book or article.

Counterclaim is a type of claim or defense that is asserted by a defendan… #

Related terms include cross-claim, counter-suit, and set-off. In Persuasive Writing in Law, counterclaim is an important consideration, as legal writers must be able to craft persuasive arguments and advocate for their clients' interests in responding to a claim.

Course of dealing refers to a pattern or practice of conduct between part… #

Related terms include course of performance, trade usage, and custom. For example, a course of dealing between a buyer and seller may establish a pattern of payment terms or delivery schedules.

Court of equity refers to a type of court that has the authority to provi… #

Related terms include court of law, chancery court, and probate court. In Persuasive Writing in Law, the court of equity is an important consideration, as legal writers must be able to craft persuasive arguments and advocate for their clients' interests in seeking relief or compensation.

Covenant is a type of promise or agreement that is made between parties,… #

Related terms include condition, warranty, and guarantee. For example, a covenant may be made in a contract to provide a certain level of service or quality.

Damages refers to a type of remedy or relief that is awarded to a party w… #

Related terms include compensatory damages, punitive damages, and nominal damages. In Persuasive Writing in Law, damages is an important consideration, as legal writers must be able to craft persuasive arguments and advocate for their clients' interests in seeking relief or compensation.

Declaratory judgment is a type of judgment or decree that declares the ri… #

Related terms include declaratory relief, declaratory action, and advisory opinion. For example, a declaratory judgment may be sought to determine the validity of a contract or the interpretation of a statute.

Default judgment is a type of judgment or decree that is entered against… #

Related terms include default, judgment by default, and default order. In Persuasive Writing in Law, default judgment is an important consideration, as legal writers must be able to craft persuasive arguments and advocate for their clients' interests in responding to a lawsuit.

Defendant is a party who is sued or accused in a lawsuit or other legal p… #

Related terms include plaintiff, respondent, and appellee. For example, a defendant may be sued for breach of contract or negligence.

Demurrer is a type of motion or objection that challenges the sufficiency… #

Related terms include demur, motion to dismiss, and motion to strike. In Persuasive Writing in Law, demurrer is an important consideration, as legal writers must be able to craft persuasive arguments and advocate for their clients' interests in responding to a complaint.

Deposition is a type of testimony or evidence that is taken outside of co… #

Related terms include deposition testimony, deponent, and interrogatories. For example, a deposition may be taken of a witness or expert in order to gather evidence or information.

Declarant is a party who makes a statement or declaration, often in the f… #

Related terms include testator, settlor, and grantor. In Persuasive Writing in Law, declarant is an important consideration, as legal writers must be able to analyze and interpret the statements and declarations made by parties.

Direct evidence is a type of evidence that is direct and unambiguous, oft… #

Related terms include indirect evidence, circumstantial evidence, and hearsay evidence. For example, direct evidence may include a witness's testimony or a document that proves a fact.

Discretion refers to the power or authority of a decision #

maker to make choices or decisions, often based on their own judgment or discretion. Related terms include judicial discretion, administrative discretion, and prosecutorial discretion. In Persuasive Writing in Law, discretion is an important consideration, as legal writers must be able to craft persuasive arguments and advocate for their clients' interests in seeking relief or compensation.

Discovery is a type of process or procedure that allows parties to gather… #

Related terms include discovery request, discovery response, and discovery motion. For example, a party may serve a discovery request on an opposing party to obtain documents or testimony.

Dissenting opinion is a type of opinion or statement that is made by a ju… #

Related terms include concurring opinion, majority opinion, and minority opinion. In Persuasive Writing in Law, dissenting opinion is an important consideration, as legal writers must be able to analyze and interpret the opinions and statements made by judges and decision-makers.

Due process refers to the principle or concept that requires parties to b… #

Related terms include procedural due process, substantive due process, and fundamental fairness. For example, due process may require a party to be given notice and an opportunity to be heard before a decision is made.

Electronic discovery refers to the process or procedure of gathering and… #

Related terms include e-discovery, electronic evidence, and digital forensics. In Persuasive Writing in Law, electronic discovery is an important consideration, as legal writers must be able to craft persuasive arguments and advocate for their clients' interests in seeking relief or compensation.

Element is a component or part of a claim or cause of action, often requi… #

Related terms include essential element, material element, and required element. For example, an element of a negligence claim may include the duty of care owed by the defendant to the plaintiff.

Emphasis is a rhetorical device or technique used to draw attention to a… #

Related terms include accent, stress, and focus. In Persuasive Writing in Law, emphasis is an important consideration, as legal writers must be able to craft persuasive arguments and advocate for their clients' interests through effective use of language and rhetoric.

Equity refers to the principle or concept of fairness and justice, often… #

Related terms include fairness, justice, and morality. For example, a court of equity may consider the equitable principles of fairness and justice in making a decision or awarding relief.

Error is a mistake or defect in a legal proceeding or decision, often req… #

Related terms include reversible error, harmless error, and plain error. In Persuasive Writing in Law, error is an important consideration, as legal writers must be able to identify and argue error in order to seek relief or compensation.

Estoppel is a type of doctrine or principle that prevents a party from de… #

Related terms include estoppel by conduct, estoppel by representation, and promissory estoppel. For example, a party may be estopped from denying a fact that they have previously admitted or acknowledged.

Evidence refers to the facts or information that are presented in a legal… #

Related terms include admissible evidence, relevant evidence, and material evidence. In Persuasive Writing in Law, evidence is an important consideration, as legal writers must be able to craft persuasive arguments and advocate for their clients' interests through effective use of evidence.

Exclusionary rule is a type of doctrine or principle that excludes or pro… #

Related terms include exclusionary rule, fruit of the poisonous tree, and Miranda rule. For example, the exclusionary rule may prohibit the use of evidence that was obtained through an illegal search or seizure.

Executed contract is a type of contract or agreement that has been fully… #

Related terms include executory contract, enforceable contract, and valid contract. In Persuasive Writing in Law, executed contract is an important consideration, as legal writers must be able to analyze and interpret the terms and conditions of a contract in order to advocate for their clients' interests.

Extrinsic evidence is a type of evidence or information that is external… #

Related terms include intrinsic evidence, parol evidence, and extrinsic ambiguity. For example, extrinsic evidence may include testimony or documentation that is used to interpret the terms of a contract.

Fair use is a type of doctrine or principle that allows for the limited u… #

Related terms include fair use doctrine, copyright law, and intellectual property law. In Persuasive Writing in Law, fair use is an important consideration, as legal writers must be able to analyze and interpret the terms and conditions of a contract or agreement in order to advocate for their clients' interests.

Federal question jurisdiction refers to the authority or power of a feder… #

Related terms include diversity jurisdiction, supplemental jurisdiction, and removal jurisdiction. For example, a federal court may have federal question jurisdiction over a case that involves a federal statute or constitutional issue.

File is a document or record that is maintained by a court or other decis… #

Related terms include court file, case file, and document file. In Persuasive Writing in Law, file is an important consideration, as legal writers must be able to craft persuasive arguments and advocate for their clients' interests through effective use of documentation and evidence.

Final judgment is a type of judgment or decree that is made at the end of… #

Related terms include final order, final decree, and judgment on the merits. For example, a final judgment may be entered in a case after a trial or hearing.

Flow is a rhetorical device or technique used to create a smooth and cohe… #

Related terms include coherence, cohesion, and syntax. In Persuasive Writing in Law, flow is an important consideration, as legal writers must be able to craft persuasive arguments and advocate for their clients' interests through effective use of language and rhetoric.

Forum non conveniens is a type of doctrine or principle that allows a cou… #

Related terms include forum non conveniens doctrine, inconvenient forum, and transfer of venue. For example, a court may dismiss a case on the grounds of forum non conveniens if it determines that the case would be more conveniently heard in another jurisdiction.

Fraud refers to a type of intentional or deceptive conduct or behavior, o… #

Related terms include fraudulent conduct, fraudulent intent, and fraudulent scheme. In Persuasive Writing in Law, fraud is an important consideration, as legal writers must be able to craft persuasive arguments and advocate for their clients' interests in seeking relief or compensation for fraudulent conduct.

General damages are a type of remedy or relief that is awarded to a party… #

Related terms include special damages, compensatory damages, and punitive damages. For example, general damages may be awarded to a party who has suffered a personal injury or loss.

Hearsay is a type of evidence or statement that is made by someone other… #

Related terms include hearsay rule, hearsay exception, and hearsay testimony. In Persuasive Writing in Law, hearsay is an important consideration, as legal writers must be able to craft persuasive arguments and advocate for their clients' interests through effective use of evidence and testimony.

Impeachment is a type of challenge or attack on the credibility or reliab… #

Related terms include impeachment by contradiction, impeachment by prior inconsistent statement, and impeachment by bias. For example, a party may impeach a witness by showing that they have made prior inconsistent statements.

Inference is a type of conclusion or deduction that is drawn from evidenc… #

Related terms include inference of fact, inference of law, and presumption. In Persuasive Writing in Law, inference is an important consideration, as legal writers must be able to craft persuasive arguments and advocate for their clients' interests through effective use of evidence and reasoning.

Injunction is a type of remedy or relief that is awarded to a party, ofte… #

Related terms include injunction, restraining order, and prohibitory order. For example, an injunction may be sought to prevent a party from engaging in certain conduct or behavior.

Intellectual property refers to the rights or interests that a party has… #

Related terms include intellectual property law, patent law, and copyright law. In Persuasive Writing in Law, intellectual property is an important consideration, as legal writers must be able to craft persuasive arguments and advocate for their clients' interests in protecting their intellectual property rights.

Interlocutory appeal is a type of appeal or review that is taken from a d… #

Related terms include interlocutory order, interlocutory judgment, and final judgment. For example, a party may take an interlocutory appeal from a decision granting or denying a motion for summary judgment.

Interrogatories are a type of discovery or request for information that i… #

Related terms include interrogatories, requests for production, and requests for admission. In Persuasive Writing in Law, interrogatories are an important consideration, as legal writers must be able to craft persuasive arguments and advocate for their clients' interests through effective use of discovery and evidence.

Irreparable harm is a type of injury or loss that is so severe or permane… #

Related terms include irreparable injury, irreparable loss, and irreparable harm. For example, a party may seek an injunction or other relief to prevent irreparable harm to their business or reputation.

Jury instructions are a type of guidance or direction that is given to a… #

Related terms include jury charge, jury verdict, and jury deliberations. In Persuasive Writing in Law, jury instructions are an important consideration, as legal writers must be able to craft persuasive arguments and advocate for their clients' interests through effective use of language and rhetoric.

Jurisdiction refers to the authority or power of a court or other decisio… #

Related terms include subject matter jurisdiction, personal jurisdiction, and territorial jurisdiction. For example, a court may have jurisdiction over a case based on the location of the parties or the subject matter of the dispute.

Law review is a type of publication or journal that is dedicated to the d… #

Related terms include law journal, legal publication, and academic writing. In Persuasive Writing in Law, law review is an important consideration, as legal writers must be able to craft persuasive arguments and advocate for their clients' interests through effective use of research and analysis.

Legal analysis is a type of process or method that is used to analyze and… #

Related terms include legal research, legal writing, and legal reasoning. For example, a legal analyst may use legal analysis to determine the likely outcome of a case or to identify potential arguments or defenses.

Legal brief is a type of document or writing that is submitted to a court… #

Related terms include legal memorandum, legal argument, and appellate brief. In Persuasive Writing in Law, legal brief is an important consideration, as legal writers must be able to craft persuasive arguments and advocate for their clients' interests through effective use of language and rhetoric.

Legal citation is a type of reference or citation that is used to identif… #

Related terms include legal citation style, citation format, and citation guide. For example, a legal writer may use legal citation to support an argument or to provide evidence of a particular legal principle or precedent.

Legislative history is a type of record or documentation that is used to… #

Related terms include legislative intent, legislative purpose, and statutory interpretation. In Persuasive Writing in Law, legislative history is an important consideration, as legal writers must be able to craft persuasive arguments and advocate for their clients' interests through effective use of research and analysis.

Liability refers to the responsibility or obligation of a party to pay or… #

Related terms include liability insurance, liability waiver, and liability release. For example, a party may be liable for damages or injuries caused by their negligence or breach of contract.

Mandamus is a type of writ or order that is issued by a court to compel a… #

Related terms include mandamus, writ of mandamus, and administrative mandamus. In Persuasive Writing in Law, mandamus is an important consideration, as legal writers must be able to craft persuasive arguments and advocate for their clients' interests in seeking relief or compensation.

Mediation is a type of alternative dispute resolution process that involv… #

Related terms include mediation, arbitrator, and mediator. For example, a mediator may be used to facilitate a settlement between parties in a contract dispute.

Mootness refers to a type of doctrine or principle that applies when a ca… #

Related terms include mootness doctrine, moot case, and hypothetical case. In Persuasive Writing in Law, mootness is an important consideration, as legal writers must be able to craft persuasive arguments and advocate for their clients' interests in seeking relief or compensation.

Motion is a type of request or application that is made to a court or oth… #

Related terms include motion to dismiss, motion for summary judgment, and motion to strike. For example, a party may make a motion to dismiss a complaint or to strike a particular piece of evidence.

Negligence is a type of tort or civil wrong that involves a breach of dut… #

Related terms include negligence per se, comparative negligence, and contributory negligence. In Persuasive Writing in Law, negligence is an important consideration, as legal writers must be able to craft persuasive arguments and advocate for their clients' interests in seeking relief or compensation for injuries or losses.

Notice is a type of communication or notification that is given to a part… #

Related terms include notice of appeal, notice of hearing, and notice of trial. For example, a party may be given notice of a lawsuit or other legal proceeding.

Opinion is a type of statement or expression of view that is made by a ju… #

Related terms include opinion of the court, concurring opinion, and dissenting opinion. In Persuasive Writing in Law, opinion is an important consideration, as legal writers must be able to craft persuasive arguments and advocate for their clients' interests through effective use of language and rhetoric.

Oral argument is a type of presentation or argument that is made orally,… #

Related terms include oral argument, appellate argument, and trial argument. For example, a lawyer may make an oral argument to a court in support of their client's position or argument.

Order is a type of decision or directive that is made by a court or other… #

Related terms include court order, judicial order, and administrative order. In Persuasive Writing in Law, order is an important consideration, as legal writers must be able to craft persuasive arguments and advocate for their clients' interests through effective use of language and rhetoric.

Original jurisdiction refers to the authority or power of a court to hear… #

Related terms include original jurisdiction, appellate jurisdiction, and concurrent jurisdiction. For example, a court may have original jurisdiction over a case involving a federal question or constitutional issue.

Parole evidence is a type of evidence or testimony that is used to interp… #

Related terms include parol evidence rule, parol evidence exception, and extrinsic evidence. In Persuasive Writing in Law, parole evidence is an important consideration, as legal writers must be able to craft persuasive arguments and advocate for their clients' interests through effective use of evidence and testimony.

Pleading is a type of document or writing that is submitted to a court or… #

Related terms include pleading, complaint, and answer. For example, a party may file a pleading in court to initiate a lawsuit or respond to a complaint.

Plurality opinion is a type of opinion or statement that is made by a maj… #

Related terms include plurality opinion, concurring opinion, and dissenting opinion. In Persuasive Writing in Law, plurality opinion is an important consideration, as legal writers must be able to craft persuasive arguments and advocate for their clients' interests through effective use of language and rhetoric.

Precedent is a type of decision or ruling that is used as a guide or auth… #

Related terms include binding precedent, persuasive precedent, and mandatory precedent. For example, a court may follow a precedent in deciding a similar case or issue.

Preemption refers to the doctrine or principle that a federal law or regu… #

Related terms include preemption doctrine, federal preemption, and state preemption. In Persuasive Writing in Law, preemption is an important consideration, as legal writers must be able to craft persuasive arguments and advocate for their clients' interests through effective use of research and analysis.

Presumption is a type of assumption or inference that is made in the abse… #

Related terms include presumption of innocence, presumption of validity, and rebuttable presumption. For example, a presumption may be made that a party is innocent until proven guilty.

Privilege is a type of right or immunity that is granted to a party, ofte… #

Related terms include privilege, immunity, and confidentiality. In Persuasive Writing in Law, privilege is an important consideration, as legal writers must be able to craft persuasive arguments and advocate for their clients' interests through effective use of language and rhetoric.

Pro bono is a type of service or representation that is provided by a law… #

Related terms include pro bono service, pro bono representation, and public interest law. For example, a lawyer may provide pro bono services to a non-profit organization or individual in need of legal assistance.

Procedural law refers to the rules and regulations that govern the proces… #

Related terms include procedural law, substantive law, and administrative law. In Persuasive Writing in Law, procedural law is an important consideration, as legal writers must be able to craft persuasive arguments and advocate for their clients' interests through effective use of language and rhetoric.

Proof is a type of evidence or demonstration that is used to establish a… #

Related terms include proof, evidence, and demonstration. For example, a party may provide proof of a fact or circumstance through the use of documents or testimony.

Public policy refers to the principles or goals that guide or shape the a… #

Public policy refers to the principles or goals that guide or shape the actions of a government or decision-making body,